Exploring formal models of linguistic data structuring. Enhanced solutions for knowledge management systems based on NLP applications

2010 - 2011The principal aim of this research is describing to which extent formal models for linguistic data structuring are crucial in Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications. In this sense, we will pay particular attention to those Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) which are designed for the Internet, and also to the enhanced solutions they may require. In order to appropriately deal with this topics, we will describe how to achieve computational linguistics applications helpful to humans in establishing and maintaining an advantageous relationship with technologies, especially with those technologies which are based on or produce man-machine interactions in natural language. We will explore the positive relationship which may exist between well-structured Linguistic Resources (LR) and KMS, in order to state that if the information architecture of a KMS is based on the formalization of linguistic data, then the system works better and is more consistent. As for the topics we want to deal with, frist of all it is indispensable to state that in order to structure efficient and effective Information Retrieval (IR) tools, understanding and formalizing natural language combinatory mechanisms seems to be the first operation to achieve, also because any piece of information produced by humans on the Internet is necessarily a linguistic act. Therefore, in this research work we will also discuss the NLP structuring of a linguistic formalization Hybrid Model, which we hope will prove to be a useful tool to support, improve and refine KMSs. More specifically, in section 1 we will describe how to structure language resources implementable inside KMSs, to what extent they can improve the performance of these systems and how the problem of linguistic data structuring is dealt with by natural language formalization methods. In section 2 we will proceed with a brief review of computational linguistics, paying particular attention to specific software packages such Intex, Unitex, NooJ, and Cataloga, which are developed according to Lexicon-Grammar (LG) method, a linguistic theory established during the 60’s by Maurice Gross. In section 3 we will describe some specific works useful to monitor the state of the art in Linguistic Data Structuring Models, Enhanced Solutions for KMSs, and NLP Applications for KMSs. In section 4 we will cope with problems related to natural language formalization methods, describing mainly Transformational-Generative Grammar (TGG) and LG, plus other methods based on statistical approaches and ontologies. In section 5 we will propose a Hybrid Model usable in NLP applications in order to create effective enhanced solutions for KMSs. Specific features and elements of our hybrid model will be shown through some results on experimental research work. The case study we will present is a very complex NLP problem yet little explored in recent years, i.e. Multi Word Units (MWUs) treatment. In section 6 we will close our research evaluating its results and presenting possible future work perspectives. [edited by author]X n.s

Knowledge Management and Cultural Heritage Repositories. Cross-Lingual Information Retrieval Strategies

In the last years important initiatives, like the development of the European Library and Europeana, aim to increase the availability of cultural content from various types of providers and institutions. The accessibility to these resources requires the development of environments which allow both to manage multilingual complexity and to preserve the semantic interoperability. The creation of Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications is finalized to the achievement of CrossLingual Information Retrieval (CLIR). This paper presents an ongoing research on language processing based on the LexiconGrammar (LG) approach with the goal of improving knowledge management in the Cultural Heritage repositories. The proposed framework aims to guarantee interoperability between multilingual systems in order to overcome crucial issues like cross-language and cross-collection retrieval. Indeed, the LG methodology tries to overcome the shortcomings of statistical approaches as in Google Translate or Bing by Microsoft concerning Multi-Word Unit (MWU) processing in queries, where the lack of linguistic context represents a serious obstacle to disambiguation. In particular, translations concerning specific domains, as it is has been widely recognized, is unambiguous since the meanings of terms are mono-referential and the type of relation that links a given term to its equivalent in a foreign language is biunivocal, i.e. a one-to-one coupling which causes this relation to be exclusive and reversible. Ontologies are used in CLIR and are considered by several scholars a promising research area to improve the effectiveness of Information Extraction (IE) techniques particularly for technical-domain queries. Therefore, we present a methodological framework which allows to map both the data and the metadata among the language-specific ont

Taking on new challenges in multi-word unit processing for Machine Translation

This paper discusses the qualitative comparative evaluation performed on the results of two machine translation systems with different approaches to the processing of multi-word units. It proposes a solution for overcoming the difficulties multi-word units present to machine translation by adopting a methodology that combines the lexicon grammar approach with OpenLogos ontology and semantico-syntactic rules. The paper also discusses the importance of a qualitative evaluation metrics to correctly evaluate the performance of machine translation engines with regards to multi-word units

Environment and daily life in the Campagna Romana of the late Lower Palaeolithic. The case-study of La Polledrara di Cecanibbio (Latium, Italy)

The site of La Polledrara di Cecanibbio (Latium, Italy) is located about 22 kilometers northwest of Rome.Excavation campaigns conducted from 1985 to 2013 revealed 1200 square meters of deposits referable to a river that was active during the Middle Pleistocene. Two main sedimentary phases have been recognized. Initially, a fluvial episode led to the deposition of thousands of skeletal remains (mainly mammals, but also amphibians, reptiles, and birds) along with lithic and bone artifacts. Successively, a swampy phase occurred, during which some elephants (Palaeoloxodon antiquus) were trapped in muddy ponds. The skeleton of one of these individuals is surrounded by lithic implements that were carried at (and/or knapped on) the spot. The taphonomic analysis of the skeleton and artifacts context - including technology, refitting, use-wear, residues, and spatial analyses - indicates that the elephant carcass had been subjected to a butchering activity aimed at collecting meat and fat for food, possibly in more than one episode, as well as bones as raw material for making tools. The evidence collected at the site and the comparison with other relevant sites allow for some considerations about the daily dietary needs of the humans who frequented the site and the resources available there

Health technology assessment of pathogen reduction technologies applied to plasma for clinical use

Although existing clinical evidence shows that the transfusion of blood components is becoming increasingly safe, the risk of transmission of known and unknown pathogens, new pathogens or re-emerging pathogens still persists. Pathogen reduction technologies may offer a new approach to increase blood safety. The study is the output of collaboration between the Italian National Blood Centre and the Post-Graduate School of Health Economics and Management, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Rome, Italy. A large, multidisciplinary team was created and divided into six groups, each of which addressed one or more HTA domains.Plasma treated with amotosalen + UV light, riboflavin + UV light, methylene blue or a solvent/detergent process was compared to fresh-frozen plasma with regards to current use, technical features, effectiveness, safety, economic and organisational impact, and ethical, social and legal implications. The available evidence is not sufficient to state which of the techniques compared is superior in terms of efficacy, safety and cost-effectiveness. Evidence on efficacy is only available for the solvent/detergent method, which proved to be non-inferior to untreated fresh-frozen plasma in the treatment of a wide range of congenital and acquired bleeding disorders. With regards to safety, the solvent/detergent technique apparently has the most favourable risk-benefit profile. Further research is needed to provide a comprehensive overview of the cost-effectiveness profile of the different pathogen-reduction techniques. The wide heterogeneity of results and the lack of comparative evidence are reasons why more comparative studies need to be performed

Mapping the landscape of immunonutrition and cancer research: A comprehensive bibliometric analysis on behalf of NutriOnc Research Group

: The ongoing global health challenge of cancer is driving the pursuit of innovative avenues for prevention, treatment, and enhanced outcomes. The convergence of nutrition and immune modulation, known as immunonutrition, is ready to act as a catalyst for transformative change in cancer research and therapy. Our study employs a bibliometric analysis to uncover the evolving trends within immunonutrition and cancer research across the past 25 years. Bibliometric data, including authors, journals, affiliations, and countries, were analyzed using the Bibliometrix R package. Clustering algorithms were applied to keywords to identify thematic areas and their evolution. A total of 489 documents were analyzed, showing an annual growth rate of 8.7%, with a collaboration index of 5.41, highlighting comprehensive multidisciplinary involvement within this landscape. Core authors demonstrated sustained productivity, while occasional authors indicated widespread interest. The Medical University of Warsaw led in institutional contributions. Country-wise, Italy, France, and the USA emerged as forerunners in fostering research productivity. Key journals like "Clinical Nutrition" served as beacons, emphasizing the multidimensional nature of this topic. The analysis highlighted growing research output and several collaborations, indicating the importance of immunoenriched nutrition in cancer treatment. The interplay of core authors and diversified engagement harmoniously accentuates the cross-disciplinary nature of this burgeoning field. International collaboration facilitated knowledge exchange. Prominent documents shaped the field, emphasizing the significance of nutritional interventions. Thematic clusters revealed varied focuses, including pharmaconutrients, surgical approaches, inflammation, and specific cancers. The expanding research output suggests further development, particularly in exploring immunoenriched nutrition's impact on cancer types and patient populations. The multidisciplinary nature and international collaborations enhance the field's progress. Gaps in research underscore the need for original studies and personalized approaches. This study guides future research, informing evidence-based nutritional interventions and advancing cancer care practices

An innovative fast track solution for food bolus impaction due to Jackhammer esophagus in an emergency department: the "Nitro-Push Blind Technique" case report

Background: In the medical literature are described only few clinical cases of esophageal food bolus impaction due to esophageal motility disorders. Moreover, the management of this condition is highly variable with no evidence in the literature to strongly support a clear defined intervention.Case presentation: In this paper we describe for the first time a case of 53-year-old male with food bolus impaction due to Jackhammer esophagus referred to emergency department. On the basis of the known esophageal past medical history as well as the absence of bones in the bolus, the patient was submitted to a new conservative treatment, the "Nitro-Push Blind Technique".Conclusions: The new technique performed with naso-gastric tube thrust after nitrates medication in definite clinical case supported by known functional disease, represents a safe and successful method, with short observational period to minimize exposure to potential morbidity and reduce the inpatient stay in emergency department. It should be recommended, once validated in a larger cohort, as the initial treatment of choice in the selected patients with food boneless bolus impaction in the emergency settings. Indeed, this management provides only minimal deviation from the current practice and is hence technically easy to learn and perform

Mortality and pulmonary complications in patients undergoing surgery with perioperative SARS-CoV-2 infection: an international cohort study

Background: The impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) on postoperative recovery needs to be understood to inform clinical decision making during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. This study reports 30-day mortality and pulmonary complication rates in patients with perioperative SARS-CoV-2 infection. Methods: This international, multicentre, cohort study at 235 hospitals in 24 countries included all patients undergoing surgery who had SARS-CoV-2 infection confirmed within 7 days before or 30 days after surgery. The primary outcome measure was 30-day postoperative mortality and was assessed in all enrolled patients. The main secondary outcome measure was pulmonary complications, defined as pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, or unexpected postoperative ventilation. Findings: This analysis includes 1128 patients who had surgery between Jan 1 and March 31, 2020, of whom 835 (74·0%) had emergency surgery and 280 (24·8%) had elective surgery. SARS-CoV-2 infection was confirmed preoperatively in 294 (26·1%) patients. 30-day mortality was 23·8% (268 of 1128). Pulmonary complications occurred in 577 (51·2%) of 1128 patients; 30-day mortality in these patients was 38·0% (219 of 577), accounting for 81·7% (219 of 268) of all deaths. In adjusted analyses, 30-day mortality was associated with male sex (odds ratio 1·75 [95% CI 1·28–2·40], p\textless0·0001), age 70 years or older versus younger than 70 years (2·30 [1·65–3·22], p\textless0·0001), American Society of Anesthesiologists grades 3–5 versus grades 1–2 (2·35 [1·57–3·53], p\textless0·0001), malignant versus benign or obstetric diagnosis (1·55 [1·01–2·39], p=0·046), emergency versus elective surgery (1·67 [1·06–2·63], p=0·026), and major versus minor surgery (1·52 [1·01–2·31], p=0·047). Interpretation: Postoperative pulmonary complications occur in half of patients with perioperative SARS-CoV-2 infection and are associated with high mortality. Thresholds for surgery during the COVID-19 pandemic should be higher than during normal practice, particularly in men aged 70 years and older. Consideration should be given for postponing non-urgent procedures and promoting non-operative treatment to delay or avoid the need for surgery. Funding: National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland, Bowel and Cancer Research, Bowel Disease Research Foundation, Association of Upper Gastrointestinal Surgeons, British Association of Surgical Oncology, British Gynaecological Cancer Society, European Society of Coloproctology, NIHR Academy, Sarcoma UK, Vascular Society for Great Britain and Ireland, and Yorkshire Cancer Research

Reducing the environmental impact of surgery on a global scale: systematic review and co-prioritization with healthcare workers in 132 countries

Abstract Background Healthcare cannot achieve net-zero carbon without addressing operating theatres. The aim of this study was to prioritize feasible interventions to reduce the environmental impact of operating theatres. Methods This study adopted a four-phase Delphi consensus co-prioritization methodology. In phase 1, a systematic review of published interventions and global consultation of perioperative healthcare professionals were used to longlist interventions. In phase 2, iterative thematic analysis consolidated comparable interventions into a shortlist. In phase 3, the shortlist was co-prioritized based on patient and clinician views on acceptability, feasibility, and safety. In phase 4, ranked lists of interventions were presented by their relevance to high-income countries and low–middle-income countries. Results In phase 1, 43 interventions were identified, which had low uptake in practice according to 3042 professionals globally. In phase 2, a shortlist of 15 intervention domains was generated. In phase 3, interventions were deemed acceptable for more than 90 per cent of patients except for reducing general anaesthesia (84 per cent) and re-sterilization of ‘single-use’ consumables (86 per cent). In phase 4, the top three shortlisted interventions for high-income countries were: introducing recycling; reducing use of anaesthetic gases; and appropriate clinical waste processing. In phase 4, the top three shortlisted interventions for low–middle-income countries were: introducing reusable surgical devices; reducing use of consumables; and reducing the use of general anaesthesia. Conclusion This is a step toward environmentally sustainable operating environments with actionable interventions applicable to both high– and low–middle–income countries

La Polledrara di Cecanibbio: a task to preserve the palaeontological heritage exposed in situ

Il sito paleontologico di La Polledrara di Cecanibbio è riconosciuto tra i più ricchi in resti di elefanti in Europa. Il giacimento fu scoperto nel 1984 nella campagna a NW di Roma durante alcune ricognizioni di superficie condotte dalla ‘Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma’. Gli scavi archeologici, durati trent’anni, hanno portato alla luce una porzione di un paleo alveo che incise, durante il Pleistocene medio superiore, i ‘Tufi Stratificati Varicolori di La Storta’ dell’Apparato Vulcanico Sabatino. Il fiume, in un primo momento caratterizzato da forti correnti, aveva trasportato e depositato sul fondo, numerosi resti ossei per lo più appartenenti a grandi mammiferi. In un secondo momento, a causa del continuo apporto di sedimenti fini d’origine vulcanica e all’abbandono del canale, l’area si trasformò in una zona paludosa. A La Polledrara di Cecanibbio, infatti, il contesto deposizionale spazia dai sedimenti fluviali, alla base del deposito, a fluvio-palustri, a sedimenti palustri posti al top del deposito. La maggior parte dei resti fossili, appartenenti a grandi mammiferi, in particolare a Palaeoloxodon antiquus, sono stati ritrovati nei sedimenti della fase fluviale e fluvio-palustre. Grazie all’eccezionale contesto tafonomico e all’ottimo stato di conservazione dei resti ossei, il progetto di musealizzazione del sito paleontologico fu approvato all’inizio degli anni 2000 con l’obiettivo di esibire in situ, nell’originale contesto deposizionale e tafonomico tutto il materiale osteologico. Una struttura fissa in lamiera, fu posta a copertura del giacimento, proteggendo complessivamente un’area di 900 metri quadrati, permettendo la prosecuzione degli scavi archeologici e degli studi in situ e favorendone la fruizione al pubblico. Se da una parte l’esposizione in situ favorisce la valorizzazione, dall’altra deve confrontarsi con una serie di problemi che potrebbero minacciare la conservazione del bene musealizzato attraverso fenomeni di deterioramento, di origine biotica e abiotica. Questa ricerca si pone un duplice obiettivo volto da un lato a studiare i resti fossili appartenenti alla specie di maggior impatto mediatico (P. antiquus) al fine di aumentare il potenziale di fruizione del sito; dall’altro a riconoscere e studiare i processi di alterazione provocati dall’esposizione in situ al fine di poter sviluppare protocolli metodologici di indagine, ad oggi ancora scarsi nell’ambito della conservazione dei beni culturali, per lo studio del deterioramento di superfici fossili. La catalogazione di tutti i resti di elefanti esposti sulla paleosuperficie ha permesso la stima del numero minimo di esemplari presenti in situ. Lo studio paleontologico si è concentrato sui soli resti fossili esposti in situ appartenenti a P. antiquus, in particolare sulle ossa in connessione anatomica ritrovate nei sedimenti della fase palustre e, attribuiti ad almeno tre individui. Le analisi biometriche hanno portato alla definizione dell’età, del sesso e dei principali parametri fisici degli esemplari, maschi e adulti al momento della morte. Similmente a quanto accade in Africa, i tre esemplari studiati morirono intrappolati nel fango della palude, bloccati dai sedimenti e dal loro stesso peso. In accordo con i dati archeologici, uno di loro, il più completo, situato nella parte a nord del giacimento, fu oggetto di macellazione e sfruttamento intenso da parte di un gruppo di uomini che frequentavano l’area. La presenza di cut marks sui resti ossei non è ancora confermata ma non può essere totalmente esclusa. L’episodio di macellazione è chiaramente documentato dalla presenza di strumenti litici e in osso fabbricati sul posto e, oltre ad aumentare le nostre conoscenze sulle strategie di sussistenza dei nostri antenati, evidenzia alcuni aspetti sulle interazioni uomo-elefante durante il Pleistocene medio. Tuttavia, l’immenso valore scientifico dei resti fossili esposti a La Polledrara di Cecanibbio e la possibilità di portare a termine gli studi tafonomici sulle superfici ossee, è minacciato da una serie di problemi deteriorativi che, oltre a produrre un danno estetico mettono a rischio la conservazione dell’intero patrimonio paleontologico esposto al sito. Gli agenti deterioranti sono stati studiati attraverso un lungo monitoraggio che ha permesso di individuare nella formazione di efflorescenze saline e nella crescita di biofilms fototrofi le principali cause di degrado. Tra le zone maggiormente colpite dai problemi deteriorativi, tre aree sono state selezionate come rappresentative e sono state utilizzate per il monitoraggio dei parametri ambientali (T [°C], RH% e Punto di Saturazione) e per il campionamento di materiale organico e di frammenti ossei. Tuttavia, numerosi altri campioni ossei sono stati prelevati da altre aree del museo e dai magazzini delle Soprintendenze per confronti. Le analisi di microscopia elettronica a scansione (SEM-EDS), diffrattometria ai raggi X e Spettroscopia Raman, sono state condotte sul materiale fossile al fine di individuarne 1) le principali fasi mineralogiche per verificare le modalità di fossilizzazione avvenute al sito, e 2) riconoscere le principali alterazioni superficiali delle ossa dovute all’esposizione in sito e ai trattamenti effettuati negli anni con biocidi chimici. La microscopia ottica e confocale laser a scansione (CLSM) sono state utilizzate per la caratterizzazione delle componenti dei biofilms, mentre l’effettivo danno indotto dalla crescita di microorganismi sul substrato osseo fossile è stato verificato attraverso l’osservazione in microscopia ottica ed elettronica di numerose sezioni sottili e trasversali d’osso fossile. I risultati ottenuti dalla Diffrattometria ai raggi X e dalla Spettroscopia Raman confermano che il processo di fossilizzazione è avvenuto grazie all’arricchimento di ioni F- nella struttura cristallina dell’apatite e alla graduale sostituzione dello ione OH-. Inoltre, la circolazione di fluidi arricchiti in ioni SO42- e in Ba+ hanno favorito la precipitazione di Baritina (BaSO4) nella struttura dell’osso, in particolare nelle zone porose e nei canali di Havers. Le analisi delle superfici esposte attraverso la diffrattometria e SEM, hanno rivelato la presenza di efflorescenze di Solfato di Calcio (CaSO4) direttamente derivanti dall’esposizione delle ossa ai particolari parametri ambientali del sito, in particolare alle condizioni di umidità relativa molto elevate che promuovono il continuo ciclo di precipitazione e dissoluzione dei sali all’interno della struttura porosa dell’osso, provocandone, a lungo andare, fratturazioni e perdita di materiale. L’alta umidità relativa, associata con la temperatura e in particolare la presenza di acqua libera sul sedimento, ha aumentato la biorecettività delle superfici ossee esposte favorendo la crescita e la proliferazione di biofilms fototrofi. Il cianobatterio Leptolyngbya sp. è stato riconosciuto come il principale componente del biofilm e per questo ritenuto il principale responsabile del biodeterioramento. Altri microorganismi, come diatomee, alghe verdi, funghi e muschi sono stati individuati e riconosciuti attraverso l’osservazione dei campioni organici al microscopio ottico e confocale. L’osservazione dell’interfaccia substrato osseo-biofilm conferma l’attività endolitica di Leptolyngbya che è stata documentata, ad oggi, solo sui materiali lapidei di origine carbonatica. Le osservazioni al microscopio ottico, SEM e al microscopio confocale rivelano la presenza dei filamenti di Leptolyngbya all’interno della superficie ossea, suggerendo inoltre un’attività euendolitica del cianobatterio. Tuttavia, questa dovrà essere pienamente confermata con esperimenti di crescita controllata in laboratorio. L’esposizione ai parametri ambientali del sito alimenta, insieme alla precipitazione di efflorescenze saline, la biorecettività delle superfici ossee contribuendo ai danni estetici e meccanici delle ossa fossili, minacciando la conservazione del patrimonio culturale di La Polledrara. Con l’avanzare del degrado, lo studio tafonomico completo delle ossa esposte e in particolare il riconoscimento di tracce d’inestimabile valore come i cut marks, sarebbe impossibile. Tuttavia, conoscere a pieno i fenomeni di biodeterioramento è necessario per sviluppare, in futuro, tecniche di rimedio e prevenzione volte alla conservazione di questa speciale tipologia di Bene Culturale.La Polledrara di Cecanibbio is one of among the richest palaeontological sites of elephant fossil remains in Europe. It was discovered in 1984 on the slope of a hill in the NW of Rome (central Italy). The archaeological investigation was completed in 2014 unearthing a portion of palaeo-surface corresponding to an ancient river bed that incised the sediments of the Monti Sabatini Volcanic Complex during the Upper and Middle Pleistocene. The depositional context at La Polledrara di Cecanibbio ranges from fluvial to fluvio-palustrine and palustrine- deposits. Most of the fossil bones uncovered belong to large mammals, particularly to elephants (Palaeoloxodon antiquus). Thanks to the exceptional character of the finds, their excellent preservation and exclusive taphonomic context, the “musealization” of the site was conducted at the beginning of 2000. The “musealization” project began with the building of a metal structure 30 x 30 m embracing the area where a large amount of fossil bones were unearthed during the first investigation. Since the moment of the assembling of the building, the fossils were left in situ in their original taphonomic context. Undoubtedly, the exhibition in situ favours the best safeguard of any taphonomic information and allows the complete fruition and a better understanding of the archaeological site. It promotes and increases the value of the site with major tourist feedbacks. However, it must come face to face with significant conservation aspects that may expose the cultural heritage to the threat of potential dangerous pollutant agents, both atmospheric and biological. The aim of the research was twofold: 1) Study the main representative fossil remains belonging to P. antiquus exposed in situ, in order to increase the potential for fruition and value enhancement of the site-museum. 2) Study the alteration processes affecting the fossils exposed at the site, suggesting methods to promote its conservation and preservation. The palaeontological study has been carried out on the bones of three elephant skeletons found in anatomical connection in the sediment of the palustrine phase. The biometric analyses conducted on the bones, allowed to define the main physical parameters of the specimens, males and adults at the time of their death. The animals died trapped in the muddy sediments similar to what actually happened to African elephants during the starvation period. They were blocked in the mud and died. According to the archaeological data, one of these, the most complete and preserved, was an object of exploitation by human beings, moreover, the presence of cut marks on the elephant bones is not yet confirmed and it cannot be excluded. This episode clearly improves our knowledge of the subsistence strategy highlighting the interactions between man and elephant during the Middle Pleistocene. Once the scientific value of the fossils exposed in situ had been highlighted, the study of the deteriorative agents has been commenced. A long monitoring of the whole exposed area has confirmed the saline efflorescence and biofilms growth as the main problems affecting the fossil bones at the site. Three areas have been selected as most representative of the alterations and have been used for the environmental monitoring (T [°C], RH% and Dew Point [°C]) and sampling. Both, fossil bones and biofilms have been sampled from the selected areas. The analyses conducted on fossil bones (Scanning Electron Microscope coupled with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy – SEM-EDS, X Ray Diffraction and Raman Spectroscopy) allowed to clarify the main diagenetic processes of the site and identify the surface alterations occurred after the time of the exhibition in situ. Moreover, bone fragments never exposed in situ have been undergone to the same analyses and experimental treatments. The biofilms have been analysed with Light and Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) in order to identify the components. Moreover, in order to assess a possible damage induced by biofilm development on the bone substratum, some thin and cross sections, preserving the biofilm/bone interface, have been observed with Petrographic microscope, SEM and CLSM. The results confirm at first, the fossilization process affecting the bones through an enrichment of F- ions in the apatite lattice and the successive precipitation of Barite (BaSO4) in the structure of the bones. During the time of the exhibition in situ, no changes occurred in the apatite lattice composing the hard tissue of the bones, but the exposed surfaces result intensely affected by gypsum (CaSO4) efflorescences believed to be one among the most harmful salts in the field of conservation of cultural heritage. The environmental parameters at the site (very cold and humid), the presence of free water and the direct sun irradiation, promote the development of biofilms which is controlled by the high bioreceptivity of the bone surface (chemical composition and roughness). The filamentous cyanobacterium Leptolyngbya sp. has been recognized as the main component of the biofilms growing on the fossils and sediment nearby. Other microorganisms, such as diatoms and green algae, often associated with mosses, have also been identified. Moreover, the observation of the biofilm/substratum interface suggests the endolithic activity of this cyanobacterium whose drilling capacity is frequently reported in several lithic monuments. All techniques used to observe the thin and cross sections (Petrographic, SEM and CLSM) confirm the presence of Leptolyngbya filaments penetrating into the first micron of the bone surface. The chasmaendolithic or euendolithic activity of the cyanobacterium on the fossil substratum is to ascertain but, for the first time, a mechanical damage of the fossil bones by the biofilms activity is documented. Moreover the study documents the effects of the chemical biocide (Sodium Hypochlorite) on fossil bones attesting an evident discolouration and a gradually pulverization of the treated surfaces. The study of the degradation process (biological or chemical) which threatened the fossils of La Polledrara di Cecanibbio and the research of methods to limit and avoid it is an imperative task to ensure the conservation of the scientific and cultural value of this special heritage